Violence against Children in Kenya - An Ecological Model of Risk Factors and Consequences, Responses and Projects

Book Cover

Preface

Acknowledgements

Tabel of Contents

List of Figures / List of Tables / List of Appendices

List of Acronyms

Introduction

Overview of study context

The nature of the study

Thesis structure

Chapter One: Violence Against Children

Overview

1.1 Childhood – The space where children happen

1.1.1 A short glimpse at the ‘history of childhood’

1.1.2 Deconstructing childhood – The sociological and the psychological perspectives

‘Childhood’, ‘children’ and ‘the child’

The changing nature of childhood

1.1.3 Childhood in the Western society

1.1.4 Childhood in Eastern Africa

1.1.5 The emergence of the ‘universal childhood’

The deficits of a universalized notion of childhood

1.2 The social construction of violence

1.2.1 Social constructionism

Who defines violence?

Definition of violence

1.2.2 Typologies of violence

History and origin of typologies of violence

Interpersonal violence

1.2.3 The nature of violence

Physical violence

Sexual violence

Psychological violence

Neglect of children

1.3 What is known about violence against children in Kenya

1.3.1 Kenya’s demographic and historical setting

1.3.2 Violence against children in Kenya – Empirical studies

The scope and methods of the reviewed studies

1.3.3 Emerging concerns about violence against children

1.3.4 Situating Kenya in the broader context of East Africa

Summary and definition

Chapter Two: The Ecological Model of Socialization

2.1 Defining socialization

2.2 The ecological model – Its roots

2.3 The social ecology of violence against children

2.3.1 Microsystem – The individual child factors

2.3.2 Mesosystem – The family and relationship factors

2.3.3 Exosystem – The community factors

2.3.4 Macrosystem – The societal factors

2.4 Applying the ecological model in researching violence

2.5 Implications for the research questions

Chapter Three: The Research Design

Chapter overview

3.1 The research design

3.2 The research methods – Qualitative, quantitative andmixed methods

3.3 The case study – Explaining and describing “how” and “why”

The notion, choice and limitation of case study

Defining the case and sampling the respondents

3.4 Tools and techniques for data collection

Interviews

Interview guidelines for the parents and informants

Components of the interview guidelines

Key questions – Interviewing parents and informants

Questions

Observation methods

Field notes

Focus group discussion

Document analysis

3.5 Qualitative data analysis in grounded theory

Coding and the coding system

3.6 Ethical considerations, validity, reliability and findings validations

Seeking informed consent and doing no harm

Ethical dilemmas

Validity and reliability

Validation of the data by the respondents

Chapter Four: The Risk Factors and the Consequences of Violence Against Children in Kenya

Chapter overview

4.1 Profiling the thirty children sampled and interviewed

4.2 Risk factors perpetuating violence against children

4.2.1 The microsystem risk factors – The individual child

Age as a possible risk factor

Mental health and special needs factors

Violated for being a girl

Violated for being an orphan

4.2.2 The mesosystem risk factors – The family level

Family conflicts and separations

Poor parenting

Children of single parents and commercial sex workers

The size of families

Living with a relative or guardian

4.2.3 The exosystem risk factors – The community

The effects of culture, beliefs and practices

Female genital mutilation

Sex with minors – ‘Cure for AIDS’

“It is your turn to sleep with the man” – Childhood marriages

Lack of income and unemployment – Relative poverty

4.2.4 The macrosystem risk factors – The society

The effects of absolute poverty

Excessive alcohol and drug use

The ‘Cinderella effect’ – Step-child vulnerability

The gaps in the legal systems

4.3 The consequences of violence against children

4.3.1 Microsystem consequences – The individual child

Lifelong health complications

Death of the children

Infection with HIV/AIDS

How it felt to be violated – Children and their feelings

4.3.2 Mesosystem consequences – The family

Family conflicts and separations

Medical costs and financial loss

Stigmatization of the family

4.3.3 Exosystem consequences – The community

The emergence of the informal justice negotiators – Home settlement

The culture of silence – ‘No witness’

The community acquiescent to violation of children

Insecurity and high crime rate

4.3.4 Macrosystem consequences – The society

Lost confidence in the judicial systems – Inability to reinforce the law

Cultural practices inflaming violence against children

Disruption of schooling and behaviour difficulties

High cost of justice – Tolerating corruption at the police and the judiciary

Chapter summary

Chapter Five: The Responses to Violence and Projects Preventing Violence Against Children in Kenya

5.1 Profiling projects preventing violence against children

Chapter overview

5.1.1 Defining programmes and projects

5.1.2 Definition of a project management cycle

5.2 Violence prevention projects

5.2.1 The Child Link Project Kisumu

5.2.2 KUAP-Pandipieri Children’s Services Project

5.2.3 Brydges Centre Children’s Home

5.2.4 Solidarity with Women in Distress – SOLWODI KENYA

5.2.5 Projects analysis – Emerging trends

Conceptualisation of the projects

Project planning

Project implementation

Project evaluation and termination

5.3 Profiling policies for violence prevention

5.3.1 From international laws to national policies

5.3.2 The concept of a policy life cycle

5.3.3 Stages of the policy cycle

STAGE I: The agenda setting

STAGE II: Policy formulation and decision-making

STAGE III: Policy implementation

STAGE IV: Policy evaluation and termination

5.4 Prevention of violence against children: Policies and strategies

5.4.1 Emerging trends in policy development processes

The agenda setting

Policy formulation and decision making

Policy implementation

Policy evaluation and termination

Section summary

5.5 Responses to violence against children

5.5.1 Responses at the microsystem level concerning the individual child

Children’s agency

Rescue – Removal from perceived violent conditions

Medical and psychosocial support

5.5.2 Responses at the mesosystem level concerning family and relationship

Response by parents and guardians

Family reunification and support

Inculcating appropriate parenting skills

5.5.3 Responses at the exosystem level concerning the community

The community response to violence

Working with communities to prevent violence

Legal support

5.5.4 Responses at the macrosystem level concerning the society

The society’s response

Advocacy and sensitization

Changing laws and unchanging mind-sets

Chapter summary

Chapter Six: Summary and Conclusions

Chapter overview

6.1 Summary of key findings: Risk factors and consequences

6.1.1 The risk factors

6.1.2 The consequences

6.2 Summary of key findings: Responses and violence prevention projects

6.2.1 Responses to the violation of children

6.2.2 Projects preventing violence against children

6.3 Significance and implications of the study findings

6.3.1 Implications for theory

6.3.2 Implications for practice

6.3.3 Implications for policy

6.3.4 Future research

6.4 Study limitations and achievements

References and Appendices

References

Appendices

Appendix I: Seeking the children’s informed consent – The process

Appendix II: Consent form for children’s interviews – English version

Appendix III: Fomu ya idhini ya watoto kushiriki katikamahojiano – Kiswahili version

Appendix IV: Interview guidelines for children

Appendix V: Observation guideline – Semi-structured

Appendix VI: Field notes guidelines

Appendix VII: Guidelines for focus group discussion

Appendix VIII: Information for participants and organizations

Appendix IX: Taarifa kwa washiriki na mashirika

Appendix X: Children participating in the study

Appendix XI: Watoto wanaoshiriki katika utafiti

Appendix XII: Guidelines for reporting and data validation workshops for respondents

Appendix XIII: Framework for documenting violence prevention projects